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	2022-12-14: How Can Matter Be BOTH Liquid AND Gas? 00:03: ... the sun is made of, or at extreme densities we get the nuclear matter of neutron ...
	2022-11-23: How To See Black Holes By Catching Neutrinos 11:35: Supernovae, colliding neutron stars and black holes, tidal disruption events when black holes rip apart stars, you name it. 16:33: ... heavy elements are produced in supernovae or in colliding neutron stars by the R-process - basically bombarding lighter elements with ... 16:43: These then decay into the first stable isotope, with some neutrons converting into protons on the way. 16:50: There’s a limit to how large a nucleus you can make this way - and that’s when the decay timescale is shorter than the rate of neutron bombardment. 16:58: ... and my guess is that known astrophysical processes can’t generate the neutron flux needed - at least, to produce enough of the stuff to last very ... 17:27: Normally quarks bid together in groups of 3 - protons or neutrons. 16:50: There’s a limit to how large a nucleus you can make this way - and that’s when the decay timescale is shorter than the rate of neutron bombardment. 16:58: ... and my guess is that known astrophysical processes can’t generate the neutron flux needed - at least, to produce enough of the stuff to last very ... 11:35: Supernovae, colliding neutron stars and black holes, tidal disruption events when black holes rip apart stars, you name it. 16:33: ... heavy elements are produced in supernovae or in colliding neutron stars by the R-process - basically bombarding lighter elements with ... 16:43: These then decay into the first stable isotope, with some neutrons converting into protons on the way. 17:27: Normally quarks bid together in groups of 3 - protons or neutrons. 16:43: These then decay into the first stable isotope, with some neutrons converting into protons on the way.
	2022-11-16: Are there Undiscovered Elements Beyond The Periodic Table? 04:23: “Isotope” is the word for different versions of the same element with different numbers of neutrons. 04:34: The isotope of Carbon that also has 6 neutrons is called carbon-12 for its 12 total nucleons, and it’s perfectly stable. 04:44: Now an atom with 6 protons and 8 neutrons is still carbon - carbon-14, but it’s not stable. 04:50: ... has a tendency for one of its excess neutrons to transform into a proton after ejecting an electron and a neutrino, ... 05:55: ... the lab Ultimately, stability depends on the balance between protons and neutrons in the ... 06:59: We talked about how the strong force holds protons and neutrons together. 07:50: That’s why neutrons are so useful - they help separate protons so that the strong nuclear force stays stronger than electromagnetism. 07:59: For smaller nuclei - up to an atomic number of 20 - an even split of protons and neutrons is usually the most stable. 08:08: But for heavier elements more and more neutrons are needed to provide that buffer, reaching neutron-to-proton ratios of 1.5 or more. 08:20: It doesn’t explain why the difference of a single neutron can mean a huge difference in stability. 08:31: To understand that we have to move beyond the common representation of the nucleus as a muddled blob of protons and neutrons. 08:59: ... which complete nuclear shells, they are 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82, 126 for neutrons, and 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82, 114 for ... 09:37: ... coupling means that even if we aren’t at a magic number of protons or neutrons, nuclei still prefer to have even numbers of protons, or even numbers of ... 10:02: Having a rogue proton or neutron with an un-canceled spin seems to be bad for stability. 10:31: Even giving Technetium a magic number of 50 neutrons doesn't help. 11:42: ... stable isotopes, and there tend to be more isotopes with a number of neutrons close to the neutron magic ... 12:02: ... protons, and for whatever complex reasons there is no configuration of neutrons that can stabilize that unhappy ... 13:15: Our calculations show that there may be more magic numbers for large numbers of protons and neutrons beyond the current periodic table. 13:25: ... numbers are, but apparently they are in the neighborhood of 184 for neutrons, and 126 for protons, and they could have half lives of millions of ... 11:42: ... there tend to be more isotopes with a number of neutrons close to the neutron magic ... 10:49: It seems there are more mysterious forces at work besides neutron-padding, nuclear-shell filling, and spin coupling. 04:23: “Isotope” is the word for different versions of the same element with different numbers of neutrons. 04:34: The isotope of Carbon that also has 6 neutrons is called carbon-12 for its 12 total nucleons, and it’s perfectly stable. 04:44: Now an atom with 6 protons and 8 neutrons is still carbon - carbon-14, but it’s not stable. 04:50: ... has a tendency for one of its excess neutrons to transform into a proton after ejecting an electron and a neutrino, ... 05:55: ... the lab Ultimately, stability depends on the balance between protons and neutrons in the ... 06:59: We talked about how the strong force holds protons and neutrons together. 07:50: That’s why neutrons are so useful - they help separate protons so that the strong nuclear force stays stronger than electromagnetism. 07:59: For smaller nuclei - up to an atomic number of 20 - an even split of protons and neutrons is usually the most stable. 08:08: But for heavier elements more and more neutrons are needed to provide that buffer, reaching neutron-to-proton ratios of 1.5 or more. 08:31: To understand that we have to move beyond the common representation of the nucleus as a muddled blob of protons and neutrons. 08:59: ... which complete nuclear shells, they are 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82, 126 for neutrons, and 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82, 114 for ... 09:37: ... coupling means that even if we aren’t at a magic number of protons or neutrons, nuclei still prefer to have even numbers of protons, or even numbers of ... 10:31: Even giving Technetium a magic number of 50 neutrons doesn't help. 11:42: ... stable isotopes, and there tend to be more isotopes with a number of neutrons close to the neutron magic ... 12:02: ... protons, and for whatever complex reasons there is no configuration of neutrons that can stabilize that unhappy ... 13:15: Our calculations show that there may be more magic numbers for large numbers of protons and neutrons beyond the current periodic table. 13:25: ... numbers are, but apparently they are in the neighborhood of 184 for neutrons, and 126 for protons, and they could have half lives of millions of ... 11:42: ... stable isotopes, and there tend to be more isotopes with a number of neutrons close to the neutron magic ... 10:31: Even giving Technetium a magic number of 50 neutrons doesn't help. 09:37: ... coupling means that even if we aren’t at a magic number of protons or neutrons, nuclei still prefer to have even numbers of protons, or even numbers of protons ... 08:08: But for heavier elements more and more neutrons are needed to provide that buffer, reaching neutron-to-proton ratios of 1.5 or more.
	2022-10-12: The REAL Possibility of Mapping Alien Planets! 18:29: ... centers of stars or accretion disks. But perhaps in the cores of neutron stars   could get there. Also some transient phenomena - ...
	2022-09-21: Science of the James Webb Telescope Explained! 12:45: Our explanation focused on how the strong force causes quarks stick together to form hadrons like protons and neutrons. 12:52: We didn’t address how those protons and neutrons - those nucleons - then stick together to form multi-nucleon nuclei. 12:45: Our explanation focused on how the strong force causes quarks stick together to form hadrons like protons and neutrons. 12:52: We didn’t address how those protons and neutrons - those nucleons - then stick together to form multi-nucleon nuclei.
	2022-09-14: Could the Higgs Boson Lead Us to Dark Matter? 00:54: We see and we feel the atoms - the electrons and the quarks - via the protons and neutrons.
	2022-08-24: What Makes The Strong Force Strong? 00:22: As you know, atoms consist of a nucleus of protons and neutrons surrounded by electrons.
	2022-08-03: What Happens Inside a Proton? 01:15: ... baby stuff compared to the atomic nucleus. Every proton and neutron is composed   of 3 quarks stuck together by gluons.  ... 12:52: ... out   that relationship. For example, the prediction for neutron mass gets larger with increasing   lattice spacing, but if you ... 02:06: ... quarks in composite particles called hadrons, of which protons and neutrons   are an example. To test QED we can chuck a photon at an electron ...
	2022-07-27: How Many States Of Matter Are There? 01:21: But wait, the quarks inside protons and neutrons are “matter”. 05:05: ... but the atomic nuclei are little bundles of nucleons - protons and neutrons. ... 06:10: However in the very early universe everything was a quark-gluon plasma, and that may also be true in the cores of massive neutron stars. 06:30: More general, a hadron, so protons and neutrons but also various exotic combinations of quarks. 07:34: If you want to see what it’s like to move to right on this diagram, just burrow into a neutron star. 07:41: ... the individual quark “crystals” merge together into a fluid of neutrons that we call neutronium, and then the neutrons dissolve and we end up ... 07:34: If you want to see what it’s like to move to right on this diagram, just burrow into a neutron star. 06:10: However in the very early universe everything was a quark-gluon plasma, and that may also be true in the cores of massive neutron stars. 00:05: We have solids, liquids and gasses, and plasmas, quark-gluon plasmas, nuclear matter, bose-einstein condensates, neutronium, time crystals, and sand. 07:41: ... quark “crystals” merge together into a fluid of neutrons that we call neutronium, and then the neutrons dissolve and we end up with really bizarre forms ... 08:07: ... example, in degenerate matter like neutronium or Bose-Einstein condensates, all quantum states are occupied, leading ... 00:05: We have solids, liquids and gasses, and plasmas, quark-gluon plasmas, nuclear matter, bose-einstein condensates, neutronium, time crystals, and sand. 01:21: But wait, the quarks inside protons and neutrons are “matter”. 05:05: ... but the atomic nuclei are little bundles of nucleons - protons and neutrons. ... 06:30: More general, a hadron, so protons and neutrons but also various exotic combinations of quarks. 07:41: ... the individual quark “crystals” merge together into a fluid of neutrons that we call neutronium, and then the neutrons dissolve and we end up ...
	2022-06-01: What If Physics IS NOT Describing Reality? 15:25: ... where this is believed to have happened due  to a black hole or neutron star ...
	2022-03-16: What If Charge is NOT Fundamental? 01:47: At some point, Heisenberg turned his remarkable  intellect to the newly discovered neutron. 02:06: The neutron seemed like a chargeless,  or neutral proton, hence the name. 02:49: ... if the protons and neutrons are just two states of the same particle, Heisenberg reasoned that they ... 03:14: In this theory the proton would be the “up” state with isospin 1/2, and the neutron would be the down state with isospin -1/2. 03:23: By introducing this new conserved quantity,  Heisenberg started to make  sense of the relationship between protons and neutrons. 03:29: ... sense why nuclei prefered to have roughly equal numbers of protons and neutrons, and at the same time allowed precise predictions of the outcome of  ... 03:44: But for isospin to really do its job, it needed to explain the most obvious difference between protons and neutrons - which is to say electric charge. 04:14: For example, some of these particles had very similar masses but very different electric charges, which I hope reminds you of the proton and neutron. 10:19: Remember that Heisenberg imagined that the proton and neutron were differentiated by this new conserved quantity, isospin. 02:49: ... if the protons and neutrons are just two states of the same particle, Heisenberg reasoned that they ... 03:23: By introducing this new conserved quantity,  Heisenberg started to make  sense of the relationship between protons and neutrons. 03:29: ... sense why nuclei prefered to have roughly equal numbers of protons and neutrons, and at the same time allowed precise predictions of the outcome of  ... 03:44: But for isospin to really do its job, it needed to explain the most obvious difference between protons and neutrons - which is to say electric charge.
	2022-01-27: How Does Gravity Escape A Black Hole? 02:08: ... light, and that’s been confirmed when gravitational waves from colliding neutron stars reach us at about the same time the corresponding electromagnetic ...
	2021-11-17: Are Black Holes Actually Fuzzballs? 09:25: ... as the neutron star’s gravitational field is so intense that atomic nuclei are crushed ...
	2021-10-13: New Results in Quantum Tunneling vs. The Speed of Light 02:03: For example, the protons and neutrons in an atomic nucleus are held in the potential barrier of the strong nuclear force.
	2021-10-05: Why Magnetic Monopoles SHOULD Exist 16:32: ... that supports white dwarf stars and instead produces a black hole or neutron ... 16:57: In the case of the collapsing star, densities and energies become high enough for electrons to be captured by protons, converting them to neutrons. 16:32: ... that supports white dwarf stars and instead produces a black hole or neutron star. ... 16:57: In the case of the collapsing star, densities and energies become high enough for electrons to be captured by protons, converting them to neutrons.
	2021-09-21: How Electron Spin Makes Matter Possible 15:42: And the episode where we took a journey into the weird, pasta-filled core of a neutron star. 16:27: ... exciting times! There was speculation that quasars could be swarms of neutron stars or supernova cascades or even bizarre objects flying at crazy ... 17:29: ... Mishra asked what would happen if you plucked one neutron out of the weird gridlocked plasma crystal lattice of the crust of a ... 15:42: And the episode where we took a journey into the weird, pasta-filled core of a neutron star. 17:29: ... out of the weird gridlocked plasma crystal lattice of the crust of a neutron star. And then my favorite thing happened - someone who knows more than me ... 16:27: ... exciting times! There was speculation that quasars could be swarms of neutron stars or supernova cascades or even bizarre objects flying at crazy speeds out ...
	2021-09-15: Neutron Stars: The Most Extreme Objects in the Universe 00:00: ... you’ve never heard of. Today we take a journey to the center of the neutron ... 00:25: ... Neutron stars are arguably the strangest objects in the universe - if we ... 01:42: ... all this is going to come in handy as soon as we approach the neutron star. The first thing   we encounter is its magnetosphere. ... 02:35: ... we’re nearly through the magnetosphere we start to notice that the neutron star’s surface   is a little fuzzy. We’re seeing the ... 03:07: ... the neutron star’s atmosphere  is not made of atoms, rather it's a ... 03:27: ... thick, depending on how you define the edge of   space, the neutron star’s atmosphere is barely a meter thick, with most of the plasma ... 04:39: ... landed on the neutron star, we  actually do have a solid surface below our ... 05:48: ... merge with positively charged protons to  produce neutrons. In this way, Iron is   converted into elements with fewer ... 06:38: ... meters, we see nuclei that can’t even exist outside   a neutron star. Where the star is 50 billion  times the density of earth, we ... 07:06: ... so neutron-rich that they start   to fall apart. We call this “neutron drip” -  neutrons leak from nuclei into the ... 07:43: ... the neutron drip intensifies, the  space between the nuclei fills with ... 08:15: ... start to get fuzzy as protons are   outnumbered by neutrons 5 to 1. A given  neutron’s wavefunction is so spread ... 10:06: ... nuclear pasta weighs as much as a mountain on   Earth. As the neutron star rotates, these buried neutron star mountain ranges get dragged ... 11:14: ... the time we reach the bottom of the pasta layer, just above the neutron star core,   all that matter has been smooshed together into ... 11:29: ... in the   entire modern universe. Here, pairs  of spin-½ neutrons become connected   in a particular way to form Cooper ... 12:23: ... the dead center of the  neutron star and even the protons and   neutrons start to lose ... 13:06: ... storms raging above us on   the surface. It seems our neutron star has started accreting matter from a binary partner ... 07:43: ... same state. The star is now increasingly supported by   neutron degeneracy pressure. But neutrons  can get much closer to each other ... 07:06: ... so neutron-rich that they start   to fall apart. We call this “neutron drip” -  neutrons leak from nuclei into the ever-narrowing   ... 07:43: ... the neutron drip intensifies, the  space between the nuclei fills with a   ... 07:06: ... so neutron-rich that they start   to fall apart. We call this “neutron drip” -  neutrons leak from nuclei into the ever-narrowing   space ... 07:43: ... intensifies, the  space between the nuclei fills with a   neutron gas. Meanwhile the electron gas gets thinner due to the electron capture ... 05:48: ... fewer protons, but which are still just as heavy as iron and very neutron rich. ... 00:00: ... you’ve never heard of. Today we take a journey to the center of the neutron star. ... 00:25: ... as pulsars. And we’ve explored strange processes that occur as a neutron star approaches becoming a black ... 01:42: ... all this is going to come in handy as soon as we approach the neutron star. The first thing   we encounter is its magnetosphere. This is ... 03:07: ... due to the extreme heat - around a million  Kelvin for a young neutron star. Those nuclei   are mostly hydrogen and helium, captured ... 04:39: ... landed on the neutron star, we  actually do have a solid surface below our feet.   It ... 06:38: ... meters, we see nuclei that can’t even exist outside   a neutron star. Where the star is 50 billion  times the density of earth, we might ... 10:06: ... nuclear pasta weighs as much as a mountain on   Earth. As the neutron star rotates, these buried neutron star mountain ranges get dragged in ... 11:14: ... the time we reach the bottom of the pasta layer, just above the neutron star core,   all that matter has been smooshed together into ... 12:23: ... the dead center of the  neutron star and even the protons and   neutrons start to lose structure ... 13:06: ... storms raging above us on   the surface. It seems our neutron star has started accreting matter from a binary partner ... 00:25: ... as pulsars. And we’ve explored strange processes that occur as a neutron star approaches becoming a black ... 11:14: ... the time we reach the bottom of the pasta layer, just above the neutron star core,   all that matter has been smooshed together into a soup of mostly ... 01:42: ... magnetic field in the universe. Even   the weakest neutron star fields are a billion  times stronger than those of the earth or ... 10:06: ... nuclear pasta weighs as much as a mountain on   Earth. As the neutron star rotates, these buried neutron star mountain ranges get dragged in ... 04:39: ... it went supernova - and some of it still survives here at the neutron star surface. ... 00:25: ... Neutron stars are arguably the strangest objects in the universe - if we don’t ... 02:35: ... we’re nearly through the magnetosphere we start to notice that the neutron star’s surface   is a little fuzzy. We’re seeing the star’s  ... 03:07: ... the neutron star’s atmosphere  is not made of atoms, rather it's a plasma,   ... 03:27: ... thick, depending on how you define the edge of   space, the neutron star’s atmosphere is barely a meter thick, with most of the plasma ... 10:06: ... are   much weaker than the signals we’ve detected when neutron stars or black holes merge,   and so it’s much harder to detect ... 11:29: ... which is probably an essential part of maintaining the neutron star’s enormous magnetic ... 12:23: ... collider experiments on Earth, we’re not sure if they exist in neutron stars. The only other time   matter existed naturally in conditions ... 03:27: ... thick, depending on how you define the edge of   space, the neutron star’s atmosphere is barely a meter thick, with most of the plasma confined ... 03:07: ... the neutron star’s atmosphere  is not made of atoms, rather it's a plasma,   in which atoms ... 11:29: ... which is probably an essential part of maintaining the neutron star’s enormous magnetic ... 10:06: ... hum at exactly one frequency- twice the  frequency of the neutron star’s rotation-   and gravitational wave astronomers are searching for these signals ... 02:35: ... we’re nearly through the magnetosphere we start to notice that the neutron star’s surface   is a little fuzzy. We’re seeing the star’s  atmosphere. Similar to ... 00:25: ... we don’t count black holes   as actual objects. And honestly, neutron stars are even weirder than black holes in some ways.   We’ve talked ... 10:06: ... mountain on   Earth. As the neutron star rotates, these buried neutron star mountain ranges get dragged in circles,   making a very weak ... 07:06: ... we leave the outer crust for the inner crust, our nuclei become so neutron-rich that they start   to fall apart. We call this “neutron drip” ... 05:48: ... merge with positively charged protons to  produce neutrons. In this way, Iron is   converted into elements with fewer ... 06:38: ... earth by ejecting neutrons.   Nuclei with such high ratios of neutrons to  protons are only stabilized by the incredible   ... 07:06: ... start   to fall apart. We call this “neutron drip” -  neutrons leak from nuclei into the ever-narrowing   space between them. ... 07:43: ... fact the neutron gas starts to take over the role of the electrons. Neutrons are also fermions,   and so two of them can’t occupy the same ... 08:15: ... start to get fuzzy as protons are   outnumbered by neutrons 5 to 1. A given  neutron’s wavefunction is so spread ... 11:14: ... all that matter has been smooshed together into a soup of mostly neutrons and just the occasional proton.   The density is here is 200 ... 11:29: ... in the   entire modern universe. Here, pairs  of spin-½ neutrons become connected   in a particular way to form Cooper ... 12:23: ... center of the  neutron star and even the protons and   neutrons start to lose structure and mush  together. This is all highly ... 08:15: ... start to get fuzzy as protons are   outnumbered by neutrons 5 to 1. A given  neutron’s wavefunction is so spread out   ... 07:06: ... start   to fall apart. We call this “neutron drip” -  neutrons leak from nuclei into the ever-narrowing   space between them. Now ... 12:23: ... center of the  neutron star and even the protons and   neutrons start to lose structure and mush  together. This is all highly ... 06:38: ... earth by ejecting neutrons.   Nuclei with such high ratios of neutrons to  protons are only stabilized by the incredible   pressures and ... 08:15: ... as protons are   outnumbered by neutrons 5 to 1. A given  neutron’s wavefunction is so spread out   that it becomes hard to even localize  ... 07:43: ... increasingly supported by   neutron degeneracy pressure. But neutrons  can get much closer to each other before   this degeneracy ... 06:38: ... Zinc-80, which would decay in  half a second on earth by ejecting neutrons.   Nuclei with such high ratios of neutrons to  protons are only ... 09:34: ... forming cylinders  containing many millions of protons and neutrons.   Nuclear physicists affectionately call this phase  of matter ... 12:23: ... Or, they might not be bound into particles at all - the protons and neutrons   may dissolve completely into a quark gluon plasma. And we've talked ... 09:34: ... forming cylinders  containing many millions of protons and neutrons.   Nuclear physicists affectionately call this phase  of matter spaghetti. At ... 06:38: ... Zinc-80, which would decay in  half a second on earth by ejecting neutrons.   Nuclei with such high ratios of neutrons to  protons are only stabilized ...
	2021-08-03: How An Extreme New Star Could Change All Cosmology 08:29: ... star’s core exceeds the Chandrasekhar limit then it collapses into a neutron star or a black hole. But If you already have a white dwarf and then ... 09:18: ... their orbital energy. We’ve seen the result of this with black holes and neutron stars when LIGO detected the gravitational waves from the last moment of ... 12:50: ... in danger of slamming into protons, which would turn those protons into neutrons. If that starts to happen then you get a chain reaction of so-called ... 13:13: ... may change. Over millions of years, heavy isotopes - nuclei with more neutrons than protons, will slowly sink, or sediment, to the core. These nuclei ... 08:29: ... star’s core exceeds the Chandrasekhar limit then it collapses into a neutron star or a black hole. But If you already have a white dwarf and then slowly ... 12:50: ... of so-called electron capture which is how you turn a white dwarf into a neutron star. ... 09:18: ... their orbital energy. We’ve seen the result of this with black holes and neutron stars when LIGO detected the gravitational waves from the last moment of those ... 12:50: ... in danger of slamming into protons, which would turn those protons into neutrons. If that starts to happen then you get a chain reaction of so-called ... 13:13: ... may change. Over millions of years, heavy isotopes - nuclei with more neutrons than protons, will slowly sink, or sediment, to the core. These nuclei ...
	2021-07-07: Electrons DO NOT Spin 12:02: ... 3/2, 5/2, etc. The electron itself has spin ½ - so does the proton and neutron. ...
	2021-05-19: Breaking The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle 09:13: ... from further away, and involving lower-mass mergers of black holes and neutron ...
	2021-04-13: What If Dark Matter Is Just Black Holes? 06:48: For example, they’d puncture white dwarfs and neutron stars on a regular basis. 07:12: Neutron stars are a bit different. 07:18: The black hole would then swallow the neutron star from the inside out. 07:22: But we see too few type 1a supernova and too many neutron stars for this to be a common phenomenon. 07:58: ... is a black hole or some other dark compact mass like a brown dwarf star, neutron star, Dyson sphere or a cluster of Reaper capital ships - as long as ... 07:18: The black hole would then swallow the neutron star from the inside out. 07:58: ... is a black hole or some other dark compact mass like a brown dwarf star, neutron star, Dyson sphere or a cluster of Reaper capital ships - as long as they’re ... 06:48: For example, they’d puncture white dwarfs and neutron stars on a regular basis. 07:12: Neutron stars are a bit different. 07:22: But we see too few type 1a supernova and too many neutron stars for this to be a common phenomenon.
	2021-02-17: Gravitational Wave Background Discovered? 00:00: ... virgo have detected 50 similar signals from merging black holes and neutron stars across the universe these sweep past the earth every few days ...
	2020-12-22: Navigating with Quantum Entanglement 14:02: For more detail we would indeed need a whole episode Quantum fields asks what about neutron stars. 14:12: ... - first, if protons do NOT decay then quantum tunneling will cause the neutron star to collapse into a black hole over an absurdly long timescale of ... 14:34: ... the other hand if protons DO decay then the small proton content of neutron stars will decay into pions and neutrinos, leaking away some of the mass ... 14:44: The neutron star will then expand, allowing some neutrons to convert back into protons, which can themselves decay. 14:12: ... - first, if protons do NOT decay then quantum tunneling will cause the neutron star to collapse into a black hole over an absurdly long timescale of ... 14:34: ... decay into pions and neutrinos, leaking away some of the mass of the neutron star. ... 14:44: The neutron star will then expand, allowing some neutrons to convert back into protons, which can themselves decay. 14:02: For more detail we would indeed need a whole episode Quantum fields asks what about neutron stars. 14:34: ... the other hand if protons DO decay then the small proton content of neutron stars will decay into pions and neutrinos, leaking away some of the mass of ... 14:44: The neutron star will then expand, allowing some neutrons to convert back into protons, which can themselves decay.
	2020-12-15: The Supernova At The End of Time 06:17: We now know that the end result is either a neutron star or a black hole, accompanied by a powerful supernova explosion. 10:15: ... and then one of the nickel’s protons emits a positron to become a neutron. ... 11:12: They’ll leave behind smaller iron cores or a neutron stars. 06:17: We now know that the end result is either a neutron star or a black hole, accompanied by a powerful supernova explosion. 11:12: They’ll leave behind smaller iron cores or a neutron stars.
	2020-11-04: Electroweak Theory and the Origin of the Fundamental Forces 01:11: Beta decay is when a neutron turns into a proton by emitting an electron and neutrino. 02:02: So an ingoing neutron is directly converted into the outgoing proton, electron and neutrino, with all the conservation laws satisfied. 03:27: Although the involvement of the neutron and neutrino meant it couldn’t be entirely electromagnetism. 01:11: Beta decay is when a neutron turns into a proton by emitting an electron and neutrino.
	2020-09-21: Could Life Evolve Inside Stars? 00:08: There’s Stanislaw Lem’s sentient ocean in Solaris, or the neutron star civilization made of nuclear matter in Robert L Forward’s Dragon’s Egg.
	2020-08-24: Can Future Colliders Break the Standard Model? 15:59: ... pressure causes electrons to be pounded into protons to form neutrons, causing the thing to collapse into a neutron ... 16:27: Well, the limit still applies, but typically you don’t get a neutron star. 16:32: In order to get a neutron star, you need a very symmetrical, clean application of pressure. 15:59: ... into protons to form neutrons, causing the thing to collapse into a neutron star. ... 16:27: Well, the limit still applies, but typically you don’t get a neutron star. 16:32: In order to get a neutron star, you need a very symmetrical, clean application of pressure. 15:59: ... pressure causes electrons to be pounded into protons to form neutrons, causing the thing to collapse into a neutron ...
	2020-08-17: How Stars Destroy Each Other 02:16: ... - from the novae produced by white dwarfs, to X-ray binaries created by neutron stars and black holes - and much weirder things ... 04:59: Just replace the white dwarf with a neutron star or black hole. 05:05: ... - instead they meld together, protons and electrons combine to become neutrons, and you’re left with a ball of hyperdense matter the size of a ... 05:33: Once again, if the two are close enough, gas is syphoned from the star onto the black hole or neutron star. 06:03: ... the case of neutron star X-ray binaries, that fluctuation includes powerful flares, ... 06:14: Sometimes we also see the neutron star as a pulsar. 08:18: That brown dwarf orbits perilously close to the neutron star. 08:23: The neutron star’s jets sweep it hundreds of times per second, slowly blasting away its gas. 08:29: That gas forms an enveloping ring around the whole system, which then falls onto the neutron star. 09:25: Finally that core is expected to break up in the neutron star’s tidal field and be scattered into the void. 10:54: ... that seemed to straddle the mass between black holes and neutron stars, and which will change the way we think about whichever of those ... 11:04: Zack Hamburg asks how we know that a black hole isn’t just a neutron star behind an event horizon. 11:14: ... give everyone some context: When a massive star dies, its core becomes a neutron star - but if that core is above a certain mass it shrinks so that the ... 11:27: So what happens to the neutron star after it collapses enough to form an event horizon? 11:39: That means the neutron star has no choice but to contract until no more contraction is possible - when it has zero size. 11:50: ... - but quantum gravity effects would not kick in soon enough to save the neutron ... 13:27: Compared to a black hole or neutron star, regular stars are giant puffed up balls. 04:59: Just replace the white dwarf with a neutron star or black hole. 05:33: Once again, if the two are close enough, gas is syphoned from the star onto the black hole or neutron star. 06:03: ... the case of neutron star X-ray binaries, that fluctuation includes powerful flares, resulting ... 06:14: Sometimes we also see the neutron star as a pulsar. 08:18: That brown dwarf orbits perilously close to the neutron star. 08:29: That gas forms an enveloping ring around the whole system, which then falls onto the neutron star. 11:04: Zack Hamburg asks how we know that a black hole isn’t just a neutron star behind an event horizon. 11:14: ... give everyone some context: When a massive star dies, its core becomes a neutron star - but if that core is above a certain mass it shrinks so that the escape ... 11:27: So what happens to the neutron star after it collapses enough to form an event horizon? 11:39: That means the neutron star has no choice but to contract until no more contraction is possible - when it has zero size. 11:50: ... - but quantum gravity effects would not kick in soon enough to save the neutron star. ... 13:27: Compared to a black hole or neutron star, regular stars are giant puffed up balls. 11:14: ... give everyone some context: When a massive star dies, its core becomes a neutron star - but if that core is above a certain mass it shrinks so that the escape ... 13:27: Compared to a black hole or neutron star, regular stars are giant puffed up balls. 06:03: ... the case of neutron star X-ray binaries, that fluctuation includes powerful flares, resulting from ... 02:16: ... - from the novae produced by white dwarfs, to X-ray binaries created by neutron stars and black holes - and much weirder things ... 08:23: The neutron star’s jets sweep it hundreds of times per second, slowly blasting away its gas. 09:25: Finally that core is expected to break up in the neutron star’s tidal field and be scattered into the void. 10:54: ... that seemed to straddle the mass between black holes and neutron stars, and which will change the way we think about whichever of those it turns ... 08:23: The neutron star’s jets sweep it hundreds of times per second, slowly blasting away its gas. 09:25: Finally that core is expected to break up in the neutron star’s tidal field and be scattered into the void. 05:05: ... - instead they meld together, protons and electrons combine to become neutrons, and you’re left with a ball of hyperdense matter the size of a ...
	2020-08-10: Theory of Everything Controversies: Livestream 00:00: ... detector the size of the planet jupiter and put it in orbit around the neutron stars stuff like this so you can make a lot of fun um estimates uh ...
	2020-07-28: What is a Theory of Everything: Livestream 00:00: ... and gravity you know something like something involving perhaps neutron stars or or something like that how can we get creative anyone who ...
	2020-07-20: The Boundary Between Black Holes & Neutron Stars 00:10: And we just did - an object on the boundary between neutron stars and black holes, which promises to reveal the secrets of both. 01:29: ... that mass, it’s pushing the limit for what was thought possible for a neutron star, and it’s lighter than what was thought possible for a black ... 03:26: Now that’s only been seen once before - with the merger of two neutron stars in 2017 - which we obviously covered back then. 03:34: ... observed across the electromagnetic spectrum - energy released as the neutron stars tore themselves apart in their collision before they collapsed ... 03:47: ... with it an enormous amount of information about what happens when neutron stars collide - and we’re going to be using that information in just a ... 04:04: ... entirely surprising - that event was 6 times further away than the 2017 neutron star merger, so would probably have been too faint to see ... 04:18: ... if both objects were black holes, but even if the smaller object was a neutron star it could well have been swallowed whole by the larger black hole ... 04:39: To understand that, we have to understand a bit more about black holes and neutron stars. 04:44: A neutron star is what’s left after some massive stars explode as supernovae. 05:20: That insane density gives the neutron star a surface gravity around 100 billion times stronger than the surface of the Earth. 05:28: Scientists believe that it would be very difficult to get out of bed on the surface of a neutron star. 05:34: And much more difficult to escape the neutron star - the escape velocity at the surface is up to half the speed of light. 05:42: ... fact neutron stars are on the verge of being black holes, which by definition have an ... 05:51: If only you could cram a little more matter into the neutron star, the escape velocity would increase and it would become a black hole. 06:13: But neutron stars are NOT made of normal matter. 06:17: That ball of neutrons is a fundamentally quantum mechanical object. 06:36: So more mass in a neutron star means higher surface gravity means higher escape velocity. 06:57: In the case of a neutron star it’s several kilometers. 07:00: As you increase a neutron star’s mass, its phantom event horizon grows while its actual surface shrinks. 07:11: This basic picture is pretty well accepted, but we still aren’t sure just how massive a neutron star can be before becoming a black hole. 07:19: ... calculations required to understand the bizarre states of matter in a neutron star are horrendous, and there’s still some stuff that we don’t ... 07:31: That’s especially true towards the center of the neutron star, where the neutrons themselves probably break down into different types of quark matter. 07:39: Up and down quarks that comprised the neutrons may even transform into strange quarks - something we’ve talked about before. 07:49: ... details of the state of matter in the neutron star determines how a neuron star’s size changes with mass - and that’s ... 08:05: Now, we can do better at making this theoretical prediction if we can catch a glimpse of the innards of a neutron star. 08:16: ... the 2017 neutron star merger we learned a lot about the structure of these objects by the ... 08:34: We’ve estimated a maximum neutron star mass of between 2.2 to 2.4 solar masses. 08:43: ... direct measurements of neutron star masses come from pulsars - cosmic lighthouses that result from a ... 08:53: Most pulsars are closer to the minimum neutron star mass of around 1.4 solar masses. 09:12: If it IS a neutron star then it puts us at the theoretical limit, and can tell us a lot about the crazy states of matter inside. 09:23: That’s if it’s a neutron star at all. 09:58: New black holes are formed when the most massive stars die and the core is too big to become a neutron star. 10:04: But you don’t get this smooth transition from neutron stars to black holes. 10:08: Like I said earlier, a neutron star forms when a star’s core collapses, but most of the material rebounds as a supernova explosion. 10:17: But if that neutron star then becomes a black hole, some of the infalling material just gets sucked into the black hole. 10:41: ... we figure out that this object CAN’T be a neutron star then we’re going to have to rework our models of how stars die - or ... 10:52: But if it IS a neutron star then we’ve learned a ton about the most extreme states of matter in the universe. 01:29: ... that mass, it’s pushing the limit for what was thought possible for a neutron star, and it’s lighter than what was thought possible for a black ... 04:04: ... entirely surprising - that event was 6 times further away than the 2017 neutron star merger, so would probably have been too faint to see ... 04:18: ... if both objects were black holes, but even if the smaller object was a neutron star it could well have been swallowed whole by the larger black hole without ... 04:44: A neutron star is what’s left after some massive stars explode as supernovae. 05:20: That insane density gives the neutron star a surface gravity around 100 billion times stronger than the surface of the Earth. 05:28: Scientists believe that it would be very difficult to get out of bed on the surface of a neutron star. 05:34: And much more difficult to escape the neutron star - the escape velocity at the surface is up to half the speed of light. 05:51: If only you could cram a little more matter into the neutron star, the escape velocity would increase and it would become a black hole. 06:36: So more mass in a neutron star means higher surface gravity means higher escape velocity. 06:57: In the case of a neutron star it’s several kilometers. 07:11: This basic picture is pretty well accepted, but we still aren’t sure just how massive a neutron star can be before becoming a black hole. 07:19: ... calculations required to understand the bizarre states of matter in a neutron star are horrendous, and there’s still some stuff that we don’t ... 07:31: That’s especially true towards the center of the neutron star, where the neutrons themselves probably break down into different types of quark matter. 07:49: ... details of the state of matter in the neutron star determines how a neuron star’s size changes with mass - and that’s what ... 08:05: Now, we can do better at making this theoretical prediction if we can catch a glimpse of the innards of a neutron star. 08:16: ... the 2017 neutron star merger we learned a lot about the structure of these objects by the way ... 08:34: We’ve estimated a maximum neutron star mass of between 2.2 to 2.4 solar masses. 08:43: ... direct measurements of neutron star masses come from pulsars - cosmic lighthouses that result from a neutron ... 08:53: Most pulsars are closer to the minimum neutron star mass of around 1.4 solar masses. 09:12: If it IS a neutron star then it puts us at the theoretical limit, and can tell us a lot about the crazy states of matter inside. 09:23: That’s if it’s a neutron star at all. 09:58: New black holes are formed when the most massive stars die and the core is too big to become a neutron star. 10:08: Like I said earlier, a neutron star forms when a star’s core collapses, but most of the material rebounds as a supernova explosion. 10:17: But if that neutron star then becomes a black hole, some of the infalling material just gets sucked into the black hole. 10:41: ... we figure out that this object CAN’T be a neutron star then we’re going to have to rework our models of how stars die - or find ... 10:52: But if it IS a neutron star then we’ve learned a ton about the most extreme states of matter in the universe. 05:34: And much more difficult to escape the neutron star - the escape velocity at the surface is up to half the speed of light. 07:49: ... details of the state of matter in the neutron star determines how a neuron star’s size changes with mass - and that’s what determines ... 10:08: Like I said earlier, a neutron star forms when a star’s core collapses, but most of the material rebounds as a supernova explosion. 08:34: We’ve estimated a maximum neutron star mass of between 2.2 to 2.4 solar masses. 08:53: Most pulsars are closer to the minimum neutron star mass of around 1.4 solar masses. 08:43: ... direct measurements of neutron star masses come from pulsars - cosmic lighthouses that result from a neutron star’s ... 04:04: ... entirely surprising - that event was 6 times further away than the 2017 neutron star merger, so would probably have been too faint to see ... 08:16: ... the 2017 neutron star merger we learned a lot about the structure of these objects by the way they ... 00:10: And we just did - an object on the boundary between neutron stars and black holes, which promises to reveal the secrets of both. 03:26: Now that’s only been seen once before - with the merger of two neutron stars in 2017 - which we obviously covered back then. 03:34: ... observed across the electromagnetic spectrum - energy released as the neutron stars tore themselves apart in their collision before they collapsed into a ... 03:47: ... with it an enormous amount of information about what happens when neutron stars collide - and we’re going to be using that information in just a ... 04:39: To understand that, we have to understand a bit more about black holes and neutron stars. 05:42: ... fact neutron stars are on the verge of being black holes, which by definition have an ... 06:13: But neutron stars are NOT made of normal matter. 07:00: As you increase a neutron star’s mass, its phantom event horizon grows while its actual surface shrinks. 08:43: ... star masses come from pulsars - cosmic lighthouses that result from a neutron star’s precessing jets sweeping past the ... 10:04: But you don’t get this smooth transition from neutron stars to black holes. 03:47: ... with it an enormous amount of information about what happens when neutron stars collide - and we’re going to be using that information in just a ... 07:00: As you increase a neutron star’s mass, its phantom event horizon grows while its actual surface shrinks. 08:43: ... star masses come from pulsars - cosmic lighthouses that result from a neutron star’s precessing jets sweeping past the ... 03:34: ... observed across the electromagnetic spectrum - energy released as the neutron stars tore themselves apart in their collision before they collapsed into a black ... 06:17: That ball of neutrons is a fundamentally quantum mechanical object. 07:31: That’s especially true towards the center of the neutron star, where the neutrons themselves probably break down into different types of quark matter. 07:39: Up and down quarks that comprised the neutrons may even transform into strange quarks - something we’ve talked about before.
	2020-04-28: Space Time Livestream: Ask Matt Anything 00:00: ... physics things like baryon number okay so the number of protons neutrons can be changed but but more importantly quantum information okay so ...
	2020-04-14: Was the Milky Way a Quasar? 07:43: All of those supernovae would have had to leave remnants behind - neutron stars and black holes. 07:49: The neutron stars should be seen as pulsars, and there just aren’t enough in that region to account for a starburst of the required magnitude. 07:43: All of those supernovae would have had to leave remnants behind - neutron stars and black holes. 07:49: The neutron stars should be seen as pulsars, and there just aren’t enough in that region to account for a starburst of the required magnitude.
	2020-04-07: How We Know The Earth Is Ancient 07:58: ... decay of carbon-14 - that’s the version or “isotope” of carbon with 8 neutrons. It’s radioactive, and decays with a half-life of 5,700 ...
	2020-02-11: Are Axions Dark Matter? 02:11: ... is the fundamental force that binds quarks together into protons and neutrons, and is mediated by the gluon ... 03:02: ... example - if the strong force is CP violating, it’s predicted that the neutron should exhibit an electric field like you’d get from a pair of positive ... 02:11: ... is the fundamental force that binds quarks together into protons and neutrons, and is mediated by the gluon ...
	2020-01-27: Hacking the Nature of Reality 03:14: At the beginning of the 1960s the atom was understood as fuzzy, quantum electron orbits surrounding a nucleus of protons and neutrons. 15:30: It may be easier with neutron star mergers, which we see a LIGO signal up to a minute before the merger. 03:14: At the beginning of the 1960s the atom was understood as fuzzy, quantum electron orbits surrounding a nucleus of protons and neutrons.
	2019-12-17: Do Black Holes Create New Universes? 09:09: ... massive stars die, they actually mostly produce neutron stars - planet sized balls of neutrons so dense that they teeter on the ... 09:20: Black holes only form when the neutron stars is above a certain mass limit. 09:25: Now it may be that in the cores of the most massive neutron stars, some particles can convert into strange quarks. 09:34: The resulting material is even denser than the original neutron star, and so brings the star closer to collapse. 09:48: That in turn means less massive neutron stars would be able to collapse into black holes. 09:54: ... the strange quark mass should be optimized to make the cutoff between neutron stars and black holes as low as ... 10:14: So, if this universe is optimized for black hole production then there should be no neutron stars more massive than 2 solar masses. 10:24: Well, the most massive known neutron star is 2.17 solar masses, discovered just this year. 09:34: The resulting material is even denser than the original neutron star, and so brings the star closer to collapse. 10:24: Well, the most massive known neutron star is 2.17 solar masses, discovered just this year. 09:09: ... massive stars die, they actually mostly produce neutron stars - planet sized balls of neutrons so dense that they teeter on the edge ... 09:20: Black holes only form when the neutron stars is above a certain mass limit. 09:25: Now it may be that in the cores of the most massive neutron stars, some particles can convert into strange quarks. 09:48: That in turn means less massive neutron stars would be able to collapse into black holes. 09:54: ... the strange quark mass should be optimized to make the cutoff between neutron stars and black holes as low as ... 10:14: So, if this universe is optimized for black hole production then there should be no neutron stars more massive than 2 solar masses. 09:09: ... massive stars die, they actually mostly produce neutron stars - planet sized balls of neutrons so dense that they teeter on the edge of ...
	2019-11-11: Does Life Need a Multiverse to Exist? 04:02: In our universe, quarks tend to stick together to form protons and neutrons, which stick together and attract electrons to form atoms. 07:19: ... nuclear force is important; it regulates the conversion of protons into neutrons, and it seems to have about the right strength to ensure that there are ... 07:32: Without neutrons, no elements heavier than hydrogen would be possible. 06:01: ... protons would be able to bind to each other to form a diproton - a neutron-free version of helium which is unstable in our ... 04:02: In our universe, quarks tend to stick together to form protons and neutrons, which stick together and attract electrons to form atoms. 07:19: ... nuclear force is important; it regulates the conversion of protons into neutrons, and it seems to have about the right strength to ensure that there are ... 07:32: Without neutrons, no elements heavier than hydrogen would be possible.
	2019-10-07: Black Hole Harmonics 11:09: The last was the incredible binary neutron star merger that was also detected across the electromagnetic spectrum as a giant explosion. 12:00: ... 20 new black hole-black hole mergers, a few black hole-neutron star, and neutron star-neutron star ... 12:52: We’re seeing many, many mergers of black holes and neutron stars, and we’re learning an awful lot about these objects. 11:09: The last was the incredible binary neutron star merger that was also detected across the electromagnetic spectrum as a giant explosion. 12:00: ... 20 new black hole-black hole mergers, a few black hole-neutron star, and neutron star-neutron star ... 12:52: We’re seeing many, many mergers of black holes and neutron stars, and we’re learning an awful lot about these objects.
	2019-07-15: The Quantum Internet 13:04: The balls act as the moderator so that each pebble emits neutrons with the correct speed for sustaining fission in surrounding pebbles. 13:48: TACCOFSX asks why the absorption of neutrons transform U-238 into Pu-239. 13:58: Absorption of a neutron by itself doesn't change the element type - just the isotope. 14:07: ... U-239 is unstable and the extra neutron quickly decays into a proton, emitting an electron and a neutrino, ... 13:04: The balls act as the moderator so that each pebble emits neutrons with the correct speed for sustaining fission in surrounding pebbles. 13:48: TACCOFSX asks why the absorption of neutrons transform U-238 into Pu-239.
	2019-07-01: Thorium and the Future of Nuclear Energy 02:49: ... uranium and plutonium can split into smaller nuclei when hit by a single neutron When these nuclei split, they release energy and fast-moving neutrons ...
	2019-06-17: How Black Holes Kill Galaxies 11:24: ... Last time we talked about all the cool elements that get made when neutron stars ... 12:04: ... wondered whether the Fermi Paradox might be explained by the fact that neutron star collisions are rare so that only lucky parts of the galaxies have a ... 12:17: ... most of the galaxy gets a decent amount of all the stable products of neutron star ... 13:04: Tricky asks us why we don't see more strange matter from neutron star collisions. 13:12: ... may be that some neutron stars are actually "Strange Stars" whose nuclear material is composed of ... 13:30: ... only stable under extreme pressure Release it from the embrace of the neutron star and all the strange quarks probably decay into boring old up and ... 12:04: ... wondered whether the Fermi Paradox might be explained by the fact that neutron star collisions are rare so that only lucky parts of the galaxies have a high ... 12:17: ... most of the galaxy gets a decent amount of all the stable products of neutron star ... 13:04: Tricky asks us why we don't see more strange matter from neutron star collisions. 13:30: ... only stable under extreme pressure Release it from the embrace of the neutron star and all the strange quarks probably decay into boring old up and down ... 12:04: ... wondered whether the Fermi Paradox might be explained by the fact that neutron star collisions are rare so that only lucky parts of the galaxies have a high abundance ... 12:17: ... most of the galaxy gets a decent amount of all the stable products of neutron star collisions. ... 13:04: Tricky asks us why we don't see more strange matter from neutron star collisions. 11:24: ... Last time we talked about all the cool elements that get made when neutron stars ... 13:12: ... may be that some neutron stars are actually "Strange Stars" whose nuclear material is composed of ... 11:24: ... Last time we talked about all the cool elements that get made when neutron stars collide. ... 13:30: ... old up and down quarks which would join together to become protons and neutrons which means you are back to where you started ...
	2019-06-06: The Alchemy of Neutron Star Collisions 00:00: ... metals were produced in an even more spectacular events the collision of neutron ... 00:34: ... understood the stars dead core collapses and protons are converted to neutrons the surrounding shells ricochet outwards along with a layer of the iron ... 02:47: ... spotted the space-time ripples from the merger of a pair of neutron stars many of the world's great telescopes monitored the subsequent ... 00:34: ... elements all the way up the periodic table can be made this is the rapid Neutron capture, or 'r-process' the rapid part is because neutrons are captured faster ... 02:47: ... splash into a maelstrom of neutrons and iron in orbit around the merging neutron star interiors that combined core has almost certainly pushed beyond the ... 00:00: ... metals were produced in an even more spectacular events the collision of neutron stars. ... 02:47: ... spotted the space-time ripples from the merger of a pair of neutron stars many of the world's great telescopes monitored the subsequent ... 00:34: ... understood the stars dead core collapses and protons are converted to neutrons the surrounding shells ricochet outwards along with a layer of the iron ... 02:47: ... are the dead cause of massive stars they are composed almost entirely of neutrons a density similar to the atomic nucleus they also have a thin crust of ... 00:34: ... which get rammed into the escaping nuclei some of those captured neutrons convert back to protons and so elements all the way up the periodic table can be ... 02:47: ... nuclear group expands and destabilizers it breaks up into droplets of neutrons many neutrons rapidly undergo beta decay transforming into a proton after ...
	2019-04-24: No Dark Matter = Proof of Dark Matter? 00:03: ... together as with many of his wiki's predictions like the existence of neutron stars and gravitational lensing this wasn't taken seriously until ...
	2019-03-28: Could the Universe End by Tearing Apart Every Atom? 08:06: So, protons and neutrons will be separated into their component quarks...
	2019-01-30: Perpetual Motion From Negative Mass? 13:43: Let’s say the two objects are about the size of apples, but to get some decent power output make them the density of a neutron star.
	2019-01-16: Our Antimatter, Mirrored, Time-Reversed Universe 03:02: ... positronsquarks become anti quarks and vice-versa sending protons and neutrons to their anti versions in the nuclei of our now anti cobalt-60 and other ...
	2018-10-18: What are the Strings in String Theory? 02:01: That includes protons and neutrons as well as mesons, which are a combination of a quart and an anti-quark.
	2018-10-10: Computing a Universe Simulation 12:21: Glenn Stern asks about the fact that the gravitational waves from this neutron star merger arrived two seconds before the light from the merger. 13:30: ... delay was actually due to the fact that the kilonova explosion from the neutron star merger started slightly after the gravitational wave ... 13:41: The gravitational waves start to get strong before the neutron stars even make contact. 12:21: Glenn Stern asks about the fact that the gravitational waves from this neutron star merger arrived two seconds before the light from the merger. 13:30: ... delay was actually due to the fact that the kilonova explosion from the neutron star merger started slightly after the gravitational wave ... 12:21: Glenn Stern asks about the fact that the gravitational waves from this neutron star merger arrived two seconds before the light from the merger. 13:30: ... delay was actually due to the fact that the kilonova explosion from the neutron star merger started slightly after the gravitational wave ... 13:41: The gravitational waves start to get strong before the neutron stars even make contact.
	2018-10-03: How to Detect Extra Dimensions 01:07: A pair of neutron stars spiralled together and merged. 01:22: Unlike merging black holes, which are invisible, merging neutron stars explode spectacularly. 09:58: ... electromagnetic signal from these merging exploding neutron stars allowed us to measure its distance completely independently to the ... 01:07: A pair of neutron stars spiralled together and merged. 01:22: Unlike merging black holes, which are invisible, merging neutron stars explode spectacularly. 09:58: ... electromagnetic signal from these merging exploding neutron stars allowed us to measure its distance completely independently to the ... 01:22: Unlike merging black holes, which are invisible, merging neutron stars explode spectacularly. 01:07: A pair of neutron stars spiralled together and merged.
	2018-08-23: How Will the Universe End? 02:32: ... Galaxy comprised of nothing but stellar remnants, the ultradense neutron stars and black holes from long-extinct massive stars, as well as the ... 04:05: But neutron stars and white-- or, by now, black-- dwarfs are made of degenerate matter. 05:28: Heavier bodies, mostly neutron stars and black holes, sink towards the center. 10:32: Iron stars evolve into neutron stars. 11:27: This same process will nail all of the neutron stars too. 02:32: ... Galaxy comprised of nothing but stellar remnants, the ultradense neutron stars and black holes from long-extinct massive stars, as well as the white ... 04:05: But neutron stars and white-- or, by now, black-- dwarfs are made of degenerate matter. 05:28: Heavier bodies, mostly neutron stars and black holes, sink towards the center. 10:32: Iron stars evolve into neutron stars. 11:27: This same process will nail all of the neutron stars too.
	2018-07-04: Will A New Neutrino Change The Standard Model? 02:36: ... latter include the quarks, up/down, which comprise protons and neutrons, and the more exotic top, bottom, strange, and charm as well as the ...
	2018-04-25: Black Hole Swarms 05:25: By the way, X-ray binaries can also result from a neutron star rather than a black hole cannibalizing its companion. 06:32: Polars are a bit like X-ray binaries, except instead of a black hole or a neutron star, you have a white dwarf with a powerful magnetic field. 11:05: I don't know, maybe a cosmic scale wall of neutron stars with two gaps in it? 05:25: By the way, X-ray binaries can also result from a neutron star rather than a black hole cannibalizing its companion. 06:32: Polars are a bit like X-ray binaries, except instead of a black hole or a neutron star, you have a white dwarf with a powerful magnetic field. 11:05: I don't know, maybe a cosmic scale wall of neutron stars with two gaps in it?
	2018-04-18: Using Stars to See Gravitational Waves 02:34: Of course, the really big recent news was the observation of a neutron star-neutron star merger. 02:59: ... what they tell us about neutron stars, more observations like this should allow us to figure out where ... 03:10: ... the Italian-based gravitational wave observatory, was online for the neutron star merger, and was extremely important in narrowing down its ... 03:35: ... of the binary orbits just before merger, which for black holes and neutron stars clocks in at a few to maybe 1,000 orbits per second in the last ... 04:34: ... as well as the faint hum of thousands of binary pairs of white dwarfs, neutron stars, and black holes long before they ... 05:41: ... pulsars, neutron stars with jets that sweep past the Earth as the star processes, ... 03:10: ... the Italian-based gravitational wave observatory, was online for the neutron star merger, and was extremely important in narrowing down its ... 02:34: Of course, the really big recent news was the observation of a neutron star-neutron star merger. 02:59: ... what they tell us about neutron stars, more observations like this should allow us to figure out where the ... 03:35: ... of the binary orbits just before merger, which for black holes and neutron stars clocks in at a few to maybe 1,000 orbits per second in the last ... 04:34: ... as well as the faint hum of thousands of binary pairs of white dwarfs, neutron stars, and black holes long before they ... 05:41: ... pulsars, neutron stars with jets that sweep past the Earth as the star processes, resulting in ... 03:35: ... of the binary orbits just before merger, which for black holes and neutron stars clocks in at a few to maybe 1,000 orbits per second in the last ...
	2018-01-31: Kronos: Devourer Of Worlds 01:49: ... the numbers of near-invisible stellar objects like black holes and neutron stars, as well as the distribution of gas and dark ...
	2018-01-17: Horizon Radiation 12:38: Loki and Alex ask whether seismic activity in neutron stars can be used to probe their interior properties. 12:46: Neutron stars certainly seem to experience star quakes-- massive releases of energy, as the star's ion crust cracks. 12:38: Loki and Alex ask whether seismic activity in neutron stars can be used to probe their interior properties. 12:46: Neutron stars certainly seem to experience star quakes-- massive releases of energy, as the star's ion crust cracks.
	2017-12-20: Extinction by Gamma-Ray Burst 03:34: Short-duration bursts that last less than two seconds are caused by merging neutron stars.
	2017-11-29: Citizen Science + Zero-Point Challenge Answer 05:15: But there's also Einstein at Home, which searches for LIGO gravitational wave data for signals produced by rotating neutron stars.
	2017-10-25: The Missing Mass Mystery 02:30: By the way, a baryon is a 3-quark particle like a proton or a neutron. 12:37: TS1336 was expecting last week's episode to be about the discovery of gravitational waves from merging neutron stars.
	2017-10-19: The Nature of Nothing 13:47: Protons and neutrons, which combine three quarks, all have spins of half. 13:53: But in a helium-4 nucleus, the protons pair up and have opposite spins, so they cancel out, same with the neutrons and the electrons. 13:47: Protons and neutrons, which combine three quarks, all have spins of half. 13:53: But in a helium-4 nucleus, the protons pair up and have opposite spins, so they cancel out, same with the neutrons and the electrons.
	2017-10-11: Absolute Cold 09:31: ... also expect there to be a good number of stellar remnants, like neutron stars and black holes, that have fallen towards the center from the ...
	2017-10-04: When Quasars Collide STJC 00:08: Red giant stars incinerate planetary systems, but neutron stars cannibalize their red giant neighbors. 00:15: And stellar mass black holes rip neutron stars to shreds. 00:08: Red giant stars incinerate planetary systems, but neutron stars cannibalize their red giant neighbors. 00:15: And stellar mass black holes rip neutron stars to shreds. 00:08: Red giant stars incinerate planetary systems, but neutron stars cannibalize their red giant neighbors.
	2017-09-20: The Future of Space Telescopes 11:00: ... had detected gravitational waves from the merger of a pair of neutron ... 11:11: Kai Whitman would like to know what would happen if a black hole merges with a neutron star. 11:19: The neutron star would be totally disrupted when it got very close to the black hole, producing a blast of observable radiation. 11:52: Feinstein 100 asks whether a black hole forming in the death of a massive star first goes through a neutron star-like phase. 12:00: Well, in a way, yes, but it's never actually a neutron star. 12:18: That support gives way when pressure rams electrons into protons in the nuclei to turn them into neutrons. 12:33: During that collapse, the core looks more and more like a neutron star, basically a giant ball of neutrons with the density of an atomic nucleus. 12:42: ... a neutron star holds this collapse, when they hit neutron degeneracy pressure, the ... 12:56: So it's reasonable to imagine that neutron star-like conditions exist extremely briefly before the event horizon forms. 13:05: ... after that the neutrons themselves will disintegrate into quarks-- and then who knows what-- as ... 13:14: [INAUDIBLE] wants to confirm that the gold in their ring may have been created in the collision of two neutron stars. 13:25: And if not merging neutron stars, then it was likely a supernova explosion. 12:42: ... a neutron star holds this collapse, when they hit neutron degeneracy pressure, the most massive stars don't manage to stop before the core is ... 11:11: Kai Whitman would like to know what would happen if a black hole merges with a neutron star. 11:19: The neutron star would be totally disrupted when it got very close to the black hole, producing a blast of observable radiation. 12:00: Well, in a way, yes, but it's never actually a neutron star. 12:33: During that collapse, the core looks more and more like a neutron star, basically a giant ball of neutrons with the density of an atomic nucleus. 12:42: ... a neutron star holds this collapse, when they hit neutron degeneracy pressure, the most ... 12:33: During that collapse, the core looks more and more like a neutron star, basically a giant ball of neutrons with the density of an atomic nucleus. 12:42: ... a neutron star holds this collapse, when they hit neutron degeneracy pressure, the most ... 11:52: Feinstein 100 asks whether a black hole forming in the death of a massive star first goes through a neutron star-like phase. 12:56: So it's reasonable to imagine that neutron star-like conditions exist extremely briefly before the event horizon forms. 11:52: Feinstein 100 asks whether a black hole forming in the death of a massive star first goes through a neutron star-like phase. 11:00: ... had detected gravitational waves from the merger of a pair of neutron stars. ... 13:14: [INAUDIBLE] wants to confirm that the gold in their ring may have been created in the collision of two neutron stars. 13:25: And if not merging neutron stars, then it was likely a supernova explosion. 12:18: That support gives way when pressure rams electrons into protons in the nuclei to turn them into neutrons. 12:33: During that collapse, the core looks more and more like a neutron star, basically a giant ball of neutrons with the density of an atomic nucleus. 13:05: ... after that the neutrons themselves will disintegrate into quarks-- and then who knows what-- as ...
	2017-09-13: Neutron Stars Collide in New LIGO Signal? 00:15: ... first time spotted gravitational waves from the collision of a pair of neutron ... 01:15: LIGO was supposed to also detect some other crazy stuff like certain types of supernova explosion and the merger of binary neutron stars. 01:27: ... abound that LIGO has finally spotted the long expected neutron star, neutron star merger, and that the event was accompanied by a ... 01:45: ... we talk about the supposed signal at all, let's refresh our memory on neutron ... 02:06: A remnant core between 1.4 and around 3 times the mass of our sun instead ends up as a neutron star. 02:22: They are mostly composed of neutrons at the density of an atomic nucleus and are held up by a quantum mechanical force called degeneracy pressure. 02:39: ... Neutron stars can rotate up to thousands of times per second and have enormous ... 03:01: This was the Hulse-Taylor binary, two neutron stars in orbit around each other, one of which is visible to us as a pulsar. 03:17: And that gravitational radiation sucks energy from the orbiting system, causing the neutron stars to spiral inwards. 03:38: Any neutron stars or black holes in close orbit with each other will eventually collide as they leave gravitational radiation. 03:46: We now know of plenty of neutron star pairs in binary orbits. 03:56: Well, because the universe makes far more neutron stars than black holes. 04:12: Neutron stars form from the not quite as rare stars of around 8 to 20 solar masses. 04:18: That means neutron stars should be more common than black holes and neutron star binary systems should merge more often than black whole binaries. 04:32: The remnant core of a dead star must be less than 3 solar masses to make a neutron star. 04:49: In fact, a typical neutron star merger needs to be about 10 times closer to us than a typical black whole merger for LIGO to be able to see it. 04:59: If we can see neutron star mergers only out to 1/10 the distance, then that translates to being sensitive to 1/1,000 of the volume. 05:10: We can see black hole merges across 1,000 times more universe compared to neutron star mergers. 05:25: Neutron star mergers do have one advantage over black hole mergers. 05:37: ... black holes only hit that range in the final second before merger, while neutron stars ring at audible gravitational wave frequencies for at least ... 05:48: If we did spot a neutron star merger as rumored, we'll have a lot more juicy data to analyze compared to a black hole merger. 07:01: But around 30% of them, the short-lived ones which last for less than 2 seconds, are believed to come from merging neutron stars. 08:03: We rarely see supernovae from this galaxy type because their most massive stars have long since exploded to leave neutron stars and black holes. 08:12: But that makes them the perfect environment for neutron star mergers. 08:16: NGC 4993 is 130 million light-years away, which is about at the limit for LIGO sensitivity to neutron star mergers. 08:36: Well, beyond raw curiosity, it may be that neutron star collisions produce many of the heavier elements of the periodic table. 08:43: Most heavy elements like gold, lead, uranium, et cetera, are produced when the nuclei of lighter elements capture fast-moving neutrons. 09:02: But it turns out that merging neutron stars can do this too. 09:12: But the neutron stars' thin iron crust is likely bombarded with neutrons and blasted outwards, spraying a ton of r-process elements into the galaxy. 09:22: Depending on how much of the outer layer is ejected, neutron star mergers could produce most of the heavy r-process elements that exist. 09:32: Seeing a gravitational wave signal from merging neutron stars would allow us to determine pretty exactly how much mass is lost in the merger. 09:49: Besides their importance to nucleosynthesis, the simple fact that we can see neutron star mergers in regular light is extremely powerful. 10:06: But colliding neutron stars are bright across the electromagnetic spectrum. 10:35: ... means more black hole, black hole mergers in addition to this rumored neutron star ... 12:22: ... we've made arrangements for half a planet's worth of gold from the next neutron star merger to be shipped directly to your address, priority ... 01:27: ... abound that LIGO has finally spotted the long expected neutron star, neutron star merger, and that the event was accompanied by a bright ... 02:06: A remnant core between 1.4 and around 3 times the mass of our sun instead ends up as a neutron star. 03:46: We now know of plenty of neutron star pairs in binary orbits. 04:18: That means neutron stars should be more common than black holes and neutron star binary systems should merge more often than black whole binaries. 04:32: The remnant core of a dead star must be less than 3 solar masses to make a neutron star. 04:49: In fact, a typical neutron star merger needs to be about 10 times closer to us than a typical black whole merger for LIGO to be able to see it. 04:59: If we can see neutron star mergers only out to 1/10 the distance, then that translates to being sensitive to 1/1,000 of the volume. 05:10: We can see black hole merges across 1,000 times more universe compared to neutron star mergers. 05:25: Neutron star mergers do have one advantage over black hole mergers. 05:48: If we did spot a neutron star merger as rumored, we'll have a lot more juicy data to analyze compared to a black hole merger. 08:12: But that makes them the perfect environment for neutron star mergers. 08:16: NGC 4993 is 130 million light-years away, which is about at the limit for LIGO sensitivity to neutron star mergers. 08:36: Well, beyond raw curiosity, it may be that neutron star collisions produce many of the heavier elements of the periodic table. 09:22: Depending on how much of the outer layer is ejected, neutron star mergers could produce most of the heavy r-process elements that exist. 09:49: Besides their importance to nucleosynthesis, the simple fact that we can see neutron star mergers in regular light is extremely powerful. 10:35: ... means more black hole, black hole mergers in addition to this rumored neutron star ... 12:22: ... we've made arrangements for half a planet's worth of gold from the next neutron star merger to be shipped directly to your address, priority ... 04:18: That means neutron stars should be more common than black holes and neutron star binary systems should merge more often than black whole binaries. 08:36: Well, beyond raw curiosity, it may be that neutron star collisions produce many of the heavier elements of the periodic table. 10:35: ... means more black hole, black hole mergers in addition to this rumored neutron star manager. ... 01:27: ... abound that LIGO has finally spotted the long expected neutron star, neutron star merger, and that the event was accompanied by a bright flash of gamma ... 04:49: In fact, a typical neutron star merger needs to be about 10 times closer to us than a typical black whole merger for LIGO to be able to see it. 05:48: If we did spot a neutron star merger as rumored, we'll have a lot more juicy data to analyze compared to a black hole merger. 12:22: ... we've made arrangements for half a planet's worth of gold from the next neutron star merger to be shipped directly to your address, priority ... 04:59: If we can see neutron star mergers only out to 1/10 the distance, then that translates to being sensitive to 1/1,000 of the volume. 05:10: We can see black hole merges across 1,000 times more universe compared to neutron star mergers. 05:25: Neutron star mergers do have one advantage over black hole mergers. 08:12: But that makes them the perfect environment for neutron star mergers. 08:16: NGC 4993 is 130 million light-years away, which is about at the limit for LIGO sensitivity to neutron star mergers. 09:22: Depending on how much of the outer layer is ejected, neutron star mergers could produce most of the heavy r-process elements that exist. 09:49: Besides their importance to nucleosynthesis, the simple fact that we can see neutron star mergers in regular light is extremely powerful. 01:27: ... abound that LIGO has finally spotted the long expected neutron star, neutron star merger, and that the event was accompanied by a bright flash of ... 03:46: We now know of plenty of neutron star pairs in binary orbits. 00:15: ... first time spotted gravitational waves from the collision of a pair of neutron stars. ... 01:15: LIGO was supposed to also detect some other crazy stuff like certain types of supernova explosion and the merger of binary neutron stars. 01:45: ... we talk about the supposed signal at all, let's refresh our memory on neutron stars. ... 02:39: ... Neutron stars can rotate up to thousands of times per second and have enormous ... 03:01: This was the Hulse-Taylor binary, two neutron stars in orbit around each other, one of which is visible to us as a pulsar. 03:17: And that gravitational radiation sucks energy from the orbiting system, causing the neutron stars to spiral inwards. 03:38: Any neutron stars or black holes in close orbit with each other will eventually collide as they leave gravitational radiation. 03:56: Well, because the universe makes far more neutron stars than black holes. 04:12: Neutron stars form from the not quite as rare stars of around 8 to 20 solar masses. 04:18: That means neutron stars should be more common than black holes and neutron star binary systems should merge more often than black whole binaries. 05:37: ... black holes only hit that range in the final second before merger, while neutron stars ring at audible gravitational wave frequencies for at least several ... 07:01: But around 30% of them, the short-lived ones which last for less than 2 seconds, are believed to come from merging neutron stars. 08:03: We rarely see supernovae from this galaxy type because their most massive stars have long since exploded to leave neutron stars and black holes. 09:02: But it turns out that merging neutron stars can do this too. 09:12: But the neutron stars' thin iron crust is likely bombarded with neutrons and blasted outwards, spraying a ton of r-process elements into the galaxy. 09:32: Seeing a gravitational wave signal from merging neutron stars would allow us to determine pretty exactly how much mass is lost in the merger. 10:06: But colliding neutron stars are bright across the electromagnetic spectrum. 04:12: Neutron stars form from the not quite as rare stars of around 8 to 20 solar masses. 05:37: ... black holes only hit that range in the final second before merger, while neutron stars ring at audible gravitational wave frequencies for at least several ... 02:22: They are mostly composed of neutrons at the density of an atomic nucleus and are held up by a quantum mechanical force called degeneracy pressure. 08:43: Most heavy elements like gold, lead, uranium, et cetera, are produced when the nuclei of lighter elements capture fast-moving neutrons. 09:12: But the neutron stars' thin iron crust is likely bombarded with neutrons and blasted outwards, spraying a ton of r-process elements into the galaxy.
	2017-08-16: Extraterrestrial Superstorms 12:00: Andreas64 asks why we don't also talk about the one proton or one neutron universe. 12:19: Not too much protons and neutrons, but the different quarks as well as muons, neutrinos, et cetera. 12:00: Andreas64 asks why we don't also talk about the one proton or one neutron universe. 12:19: Not too much protons and neutrons, but the different quarks as well as muons, neutrinos, et cetera.
	2017-01-25: Why Quasars are so Awesome 03:37: ... hysterical flurry of hypothesizing followed-- swarms of neutron stars, an alien civilization harnessing their entire galaxy's power, ...
	2017-01-04: How to See Black Holes + Kugelblitz Challenge Answer 01:29: This happens when the substance of a visible star is accreting onto a companion neutron star or black hole.
	2016-11-30: Pilot Wave Theory and Quantum Realism 14:25: Sebastian Lopez asks how are the magnetic fields of neutron stars created. 14:37: That might seem a problem for an object made up of neutral particles like a neutron star. 14:41: However, a neutron star isn't only made up of neutrons. 14:51: ... have significant impurities of electrons and protons mixed in with the neutrons, perhaps up to 10% electrons and protons by mass of the ... 15:06: With their extreme rotation rates, neutron stars support electric currents sufficient for magnetic fields of up to 100 million tesla. 15:49: In a neutron star, it's a superfluid, so not ideal there. 15:53: ... Wolverine pressure-- it would expand into a gas cataclysmically and the neutrons would decay to protons and electrons and an awful lot of ... 14:37: That might seem a problem for an object made up of neutral particles like a neutron star. 14:41: However, a neutron star isn't only made up of neutrons. 15:49: In a neutron star, it's a superfluid, so not ideal there. 14:41: However, a neutron star isn't only made up of neutrons. 14:25: Sebastian Lopez asks how are the magnetic fields of neutron stars created. 15:06: With their extreme rotation rates, neutron stars support electric currents sufficient for magnetic fields of up to 100 million tesla. 14:25: Sebastian Lopez asks how are the magnetic fields of neutron stars created. 15:06: With their extreme rotation rates, neutron stars support electric currents sufficient for magnetic fields of up to 100 million tesla. 15:28: The757packerfan would like to know where the neutronium compares to adamantium. 15:36: Neutronium pretty much sucks as a skeleton graft for Wolverine. 16:05: A five centimeter tube of neutronium would explode with the equivalent energy of around a trillion hydrogen bombs. 15:28: The757packerfan would like to know where the neutronium compares to adamantium. 15:36: Neutronium pretty much sucks as a skeleton graft for Wolverine. 14:41: However, a neutron star isn't only made up of neutrons. 14:51: ... have significant impurities of electrons and protons mixed in with the neutrons, perhaps up to 10% electrons and protons by mass of the ... 15:53: ... Wolverine pressure-- it would expand into a gas cataclysmically and the neutrons would decay to protons and electrons and an awful lot of ...
	2016-11-16: Strange Stars 00:00: ... PLAYING] As if black holes and neutron stars aren't weird enough, physicists have very good reason to believe ... 00:44: The most wonderfully monstrous of these are the remnant corpses of the most massive stars, stellar zombies like neutron stars and black holes. 01:08: ... already talked about how quantum processes save a neutron star from collapse, but ultimately also doom the most massive to ... 01:32: Before we can understand strange stars, we need to start with a stellar remnant that we know for sure exists, the neutron star. 01:52: In that collapse, most of the electrons and protons are crunched together to form neutrons. 01:58: ... around 10 kilometers, the collapsing core is suddenly halted when those neutrons hit an absolute limit of density, which I'll come back ... 02:07: The rest of the in-falling star collides with the new neutron star and ricochets outwards in the most powerful explosion in the universe, a supernova. 02:16: The remaining neutron star is millions of Kelvin in temperature, and may be spinning thousands of times per second. 02:28: These jets may sweep across the Earth due to the spinning-top-like procession of the neutron star. 02:36: Our understanding of neutron stars seems to fit the behavior of pulsars very well, at least for most of them. 02:49: ... ordinary neutron stars, that surface is a thin crust of iron, which quickly gives way to ... 03:27: The Pauli exclusion principle states that this is forbidden for fermions, the family of particles that neutrons belong to. 03:42: And we certainly can't test what happens to it when subjected to the insane pressures at a neutron star's core. 03:49: In those conditions, individual neutrons are packed so tight that they begin to overlap. 03:56: This may cause neutrons to dissolve into their component quarks. 04:38: ... the quark matter in a neutron star is forged by insane pressures, not by the ... 04:59: We sometimes call a neutron star with such a quark matter core a quark star. 05:04: Now, neutrons are comprised of one up and two down quarks. 05:27: It may be that when neutrons disintegrate under high pressure, half of the down quarks are converted to strange quarks. 06:21: Not content even with this level of weirdness, physicists have proposed even more mad ideas for neutron star cores. 06:51: It could be that neutron stars have an electroweak core, an apple-sized ball with the mass of two Earths in which quarks themselves burn. 07:40: ... Observatory to that spot and found a young pulsar, a rapidly rotating neutron star 10,000 light years ... 08:13: The x-ray data revealed a surface temperature of a more million Kelvin, much cooler than expected for a neutron star of its age. 08:23: A possible explanation is that a quark matter core formed at the heart of this neutron star and is slowly transforming into strange matter. 08:41: That energy would be the heat energy of the neutron star. 08:59: And it's been hypothesized that these may be due to a second explosion as the neutron star collapses further into a quark star. 09:17: ... to leave a black hole, yet astronomers still haven't found the expected neutron star at the location of the ... 01:08: ... already talked about how quantum processes save a neutron star from collapse, but ultimately also doom the most massive to collapse ... 01:32: Before we can understand strange stars, we need to start with a stellar remnant that we know for sure exists, the neutron star. 02:07: The rest of the in-falling star collides with the new neutron star and ricochets outwards in the most powerful explosion in the universe, a supernova. 02:16: The remaining neutron star is millions of Kelvin in temperature, and may be spinning thousands of times per second. 02:28: These jets may sweep across the Earth due to the spinning-top-like procession of the neutron star. 04:38: ... the quark matter in a neutron star is forged by insane pressures, not by the greater-than-a-trillion-Kelvin ... 04:59: We sometimes call a neutron star with such a quark matter core a quark star. 06:21: Not content even with this level of weirdness, physicists have proposed even more mad ideas for neutron star cores. 07:40: ... Observatory to that spot and found a young pulsar, a rapidly rotating neutron star 10,000 light years ... 08:13: The x-ray data revealed a surface temperature of a more million Kelvin, much cooler than expected for a neutron star of its age. 08:23: A possible explanation is that a quark matter core formed at the heart of this neutron star and is slowly transforming into strange matter. 08:41: That energy would be the heat energy of the neutron star. 08:59: And it's been hypothesized that these may be due to a second explosion as the neutron star collapses further into a quark star. 09:17: ... to leave a black hole, yet astronomers still haven't found the expected neutron star at the location of the ... 07:40: ... Observatory to that spot and found a young pulsar, a rapidly rotating neutron star 10,000 light years ... 08:59: And it's been hypothesized that these may be due to a second explosion as the neutron star collapses further into a quark star. 06:21: Not content even with this level of weirdness, physicists have proposed even more mad ideas for neutron star cores. 00:00: ... PLAYING] As if black holes and neutron stars aren't weird enough, physicists have very good reason to believe that ... 00:44: The most wonderfully monstrous of these are the remnant corpses of the most massive stars, stellar zombies like neutron stars and black holes. 02:36: Our understanding of neutron stars seems to fit the behavior of pulsars very well, at least for most of them. 02:49: ... ordinary neutron stars, that surface is a thin crust of iron, which quickly gives way to a fluid ... 03:42: And we certainly can't test what happens to it when subjected to the insane pressures at a neutron star's core. 06:51: It could be that neutron stars have an electroweak core, an apple-sized ball with the mass of two Earths in which quarks themselves burn. 03:42: And we certainly can't test what happens to it when subjected to the insane pressures at a neutron star's core. 02:49: ... of iron, which quickly gives way to a fluid of almost pure neutrons, neutronium, the densest known substance in the ... 03:12: Neutronium is degenerate matter, and I don't mean that in the same way that your parents probably used the word. 03:35: We don't know nearly as much as we'd like about the nature of neutronium. 04:50: In that state, it forms a superfluid rather than a plasma, a superfluid even denser than neutronium. 01:52: In that collapse, most of the electrons and protons are crunched together to form neutrons. 01:58: ... around 10 kilometers, the collapsing core is suddenly halted when those neutrons hit an absolute limit of density, which I'll come back ... 02:49: ... a thin crust of iron, which quickly gives way to a fluid of almost pure neutrons, neutronium, the densest known substance in the ... 03:27: The Pauli exclusion principle states that this is forbidden for fermions, the family of particles that neutrons belong to. 03:49: In those conditions, individual neutrons are packed so tight that they begin to overlap. 03:56: This may cause neutrons to dissolve into their component quarks. 05:04: Now, neutrons are comprised of one up and two down quarks. 05:27: It may be that when neutrons disintegrate under high pressure, half of the down quarks are converted to strange quarks. 03:27: The Pauli exclusion principle states that this is forbidden for fermions, the family of particles that neutrons belong to. 05:27: It may be that when neutrons disintegrate under high pressure, half of the down quarks are converted to strange quarks. 01:58: ... around 10 kilometers, the collapsing core is suddenly halted when those neutrons hit an absolute limit of density, which I'll come back ... 02:49: ... a thin crust of iron, which quickly gives way to a fluid of almost pure neutrons, neutronium, the densest known substance in the ...
	2016-10-19: The First Humans on Mars 09:59: Otherwise, it becomes a neutron star.
	2016-10-12: Black Holes from the Dawn of Time 05:53: The smallest should fall into neutron stars, causing them to either explode or become black holes themselves. 06:01: But we see loosely bound binaries, and normal star clusters, and plenty of neutron stars. 05:53: The smallest should fall into neutron stars, causing them to either explode or become black holes themselves. 06:01: But we see loosely bound binaries, and normal star clusters, and plenty of neutron stars. 05:53: The smallest should fall into neutron stars, causing them to either explode or become black holes themselves.
	2016-09-07: Is There a Fifth Fundamental Force? + Quantum Eraser Answer 00:41: Protons and neutrons can occupy excited states, contain excess energy.
	2016-08-03: Can We Survive the Destruction of the Earth? ft. Neal Stephenson 08:58: ... massive star goes supernova, the resulting collapse of the core into a neutron star, or black hole, can produce these insanely powerful jets of ...
	2016-07-20: The Future of Gravitational Waves 04:54: We should eventually see mergers between two neutron stars or a neutron star and a black hole, as well as supernova explosions. 05:41: ... probability that an alpha particle-- so a package of two protons and two neutrons-- would tunnel out of the nucleus of a polonium-212 atom, causing the ... 04:54: We should eventually see mergers between two neutron stars or a neutron star and a black hole, as well as supernova explosions. 05:41: ... probability that an alpha particle-- so a package of two protons and two neutrons-- would tunnel out of the nucleus of a polonium-212 atom, causing the ...
	2016-06-15: The Strange Universe of Gravitational Lensing 07:20: ... stellar bodies-- black holes, neutron stars, and brown dwarves-- occasionally pass in front of other starts ...
	2016-06-01: Is Quantum Tunneling Faster than Light? 02:56: But what about something much smaller, say a tightly bound bundle of two protons and two neutrons that we call an alpha particle? 04:52: Protons, neutrons, electrons, and alpha particles can quantum tunnel into nuclei in various types of fusion and particle capture phenomena. 02:56: But what about something much smaller, say a tightly bound bundle of two protons and two neutrons that we call an alpha particle? 04:52: Protons, neutrons, electrons, and alpha particles can quantum tunnel into nuclei in various types of fusion and particle capture phenomena.
	2016-04-06: We Are Star Stuff 01:54: Along with a similar number of neutrons, and beyond the nucleus, electrons swarm in their quantized shells. 03:46: Two protons, two neutrons, 12 quarks, a complicated but very stable marriage of particles. 07:20: And the process makes it a neutron star. 07:24: ... elements collapse also, but they hit the brick wall of the newly born neutron star and ricochet back in the largest explosion in the universe, a ... 08:15: ... the shockwave of the explosion rips through those infalling shells, neutrons are rammed into nuclei, producing lead, gold, uranium, all of the ... 09:16: ... universe, were formed not in a supernova, but in the collision of two neutron ... 09:27: ... two very massive stars in binary orbit leave behind neutron star corpses, those remnants will eventually spiral in as they radiate ... 07:20: And the process makes it a neutron star. 07:24: ... elements collapse also, but they hit the brick wall of the newly born neutron star and ricochet back in the largest explosion in the universe, a ... 09:27: ... two very massive stars in binary orbit leave behind neutron star corpses, those remnants will eventually spiral in as they radiate away ... 09:16: ... universe, were formed not in a supernova, but in the collision of two neutron stars. ... 01:54: Along with a similar number of neutrons, and beyond the nucleus, electrons swarm in their quantized shells. 03:46: Two protons, two neutrons, 12 quarks, a complicated but very stable marriage of particles. 08:15: ... the shockwave of the explosion rips through those infalling shells, neutrons are rammed into nuclei, producing lead, gold, uranium, all of the ... 03:46: Two protons, two neutrons, 12 quarks, a complicated but very stable marriage of particles.
	2016-03-30: Pulsar Starquakes Make Fast Radio Bursts? + Challenge Winners! 01:11: ... of cataclysmic events, like colliding stellar remnants, supernovae, neutron stars collapsing into black holes, crazy stuff like ... 01:56: ... the best contenders involve young neutron stars, which rotate at insane rates and occasionally give off extremely ... 04:55: That's the mass of all the protons and neutrons in the observable universe. 05:25: But what about the neutrons? 05:28: 75% of the baryonic mass is in hydrogen, which has just one proton and no neutrons. 05:34: For the rest, it's about half, half protons and neutrons. 01:11: ... of cataclysmic events, like colliding stellar remnants, supernovae, neutron stars collapsing into black holes, crazy stuff like ... 01:56: ... the best contenders involve young neutron stars, which rotate at insane rates and occasionally give off extremely intense ... 01:11: ... of cataclysmic events, like colliding stellar remnants, supernovae, neutron stars collapsing into black holes, crazy stuff like ... 04:55: That's the mass of all the protons and neutrons in the observable universe. 05:25: But what about the neutrons? 05:28: 75% of the baryonic mass is in hydrogen, which has just one proton and no neutrons. 05:34: For the rest, it's about half, half protons and neutrons.
	2016-03-02: What’s Wrong With the Big Bang Theory? 11:11: ... asks, does this mean if you were to take every proton, neutron, and electron in the universe, you could fit them all into a space the ...
	2016-02-11: LIGO's First Detection of Gravitational Waves! 02:06: Now, LIGO is sensitive to pairs of stellar mass black holes and/or neutron stars. 02:40: Now we've seen this slow orbital decay in binary neutron stars. 03:22: ... those few minutes, the merging black holes or neutron stars produce such strong ripples in the fabric of spacetime that LIGO ... 04:07: In the case of merging neutron stars, it's a much smaller distance, and so none have been seen yet, although it will happen eventually. 04:14: We'll also spot supernova explosions that produce neutron stars. 06:13: ... gravitational waves at frequencies produced by merging black holes and neutron stars, as well as the formation of neutron stars and supernova ... 06:24: And potentially, even the actual spin of neutron stars. 02:06: Now, LIGO is sensitive to pairs of stellar mass black holes and/or neutron stars. 02:40: Now we've seen this slow orbital decay in binary neutron stars. 03:22: ... those few minutes, the merging black holes or neutron stars produce such strong ripples in the fabric of spacetime that LIGO can see ... 04:07: In the case of merging neutron stars, it's a much smaller distance, and so none have been seen yet, although it will happen eventually. 04:14: We'll also spot supernova explosions that produce neutron stars. 06:13: ... gravitational waves at frequencies produced by merging black holes and neutron stars, as well as the formation of neutron stars and supernova ... 06:24: And potentially, even the actual spin of neutron stars. 03:22: ... those few minutes, the merging black holes or neutron stars produce such strong ripples in the fabric of spacetime that LIGO can see them ...
	2016-01-13: When Time Breaks Down 02:46: ... the last episode, we compared the nucleons of atoms-- protons and neutrons-- to the imaginary photon box, a massless mirrored box filled with light, ...
	2016-01-06: The True Nature of Matter and Mass 00:54: ... the kinetic and binding energy of the quarks that make up protons and neutrons. ...
	2015-12-16: The Higgs Mechanism Explained 00:28: The electrons, and the quarks that comprise protons and neutrons, do seem to have intrinsic mass, but this is only run 1% of the mass of the atom.
	2015-12-09: How to Build a Black Hole 02:03: Electrons are slammed into protons in the ion nuclei, forging a neutron star. 02:17: ... leftover core, the neutron star, is a very weird beast-- a bowl of neutrons the size of a city, ... 02:33: Now, beneath the thin atmosphere of ion plasma, a neutron star is a quantum mechanical entity. 03:04: For a neutron star, this is the space of both 3D position and 3D momentum. 03:09: And it defines the volume that can be occupied by the strange matter in a neutron star. 03:15: ... the exact way that the matter of a neutron star fills this 6D quantum phase space depends on two important ... 03:45: For example, electrons, protons, and neutrons. 04:09: In the case of a neutron star, position momentum phase space is completely full of neutrons. 04:16: Every spatial location and every momentum location connected to those special locations contains a neutron. 04:32: ... strong enough to initially resist the insane gravitational crush of a neutron ... 04:58: So the neutron star is safe. 05:35: ... neutron, for instance, is not in any one place but exists as a cloud of possible ... 05:46: Location remains a possibility cloud until the neutron interacts with another particle, at which point, its location is resolved. 06:23: So a neutron star is comprised of the densest matter in the universe. 06:27: Its constituent neutrons are about as constrained in position as you can get. 06:40: Very, very large neutron velocities become part of the possibility space. 06:44: To put it another way, the neutrons are packed so close together in position space that their momentum space becomes gigantic. 06:55: And here's the thing-- the denser the neutron star becomes, the more momentum space you get. 07:06: If we can somehow add more matter to a neutron star-- throw another star at it, maybe-- it won't get spatially larger. 07:27: The more matter of the neutron star, the smaller its radius. 07:36: Until now, the neutron star has hovered above a critical size. 07:41: The space time curvature at the neutron star's surface is pretty extreme. 08:05: Now, the event horizon doesn't actually exist as long as the neutron star stays larger than the would be horizon. 08:12: However, if we can increase the mass of the neutron star, the actual star shrinks, and the event horizon expands. 08:22: There's a mass where the radius of the neutron star and the event horizon overlap. 08:32: And the neutron star submerges beneath it. 08:54: When the black hole first forms, the material inside must resemble the stuff of the original neutron star. 09:25: Neutrons are certainly shredded into component quarks and gluons. 05:46: Location remains a possibility cloud until the neutron interacts with another particle, at which point, its location is resolved. 02:03: Electrons are slammed into protons in the ion nuclei, forging a neutron star. 02:17: ... leftover core, the neutron star, is a very weird beast-- a bowl of neutrons the size of a city, with a ... 02:33: Now, beneath the thin atmosphere of ion plasma, a neutron star is a quantum mechanical entity. 03:04: For a neutron star, this is the space of both 3D position and 3D momentum. 03:09: And it defines the volume that can be occupied by the strange matter in a neutron star. 03:15: ... the exact way that the matter of a neutron star fills this 6D quantum phase space depends on two important principles of ... 04:09: In the case of a neutron star, position momentum phase space is completely full of neutrons. 04:32: ... strong enough to initially resist the insane gravitational crush of a neutron star. ... 04:58: So the neutron star is safe. 06:23: So a neutron star is comprised of the densest matter in the universe. 06:55: And here's the thing-- the denser the neutron star becomes, the more momentum space you get. 07:06: If we can somehow add more matter to a neutron star-- throw another star at it, maybe-- it won't get spatially larger. 07:27: The more matter of the neutron star, the smaller its radius. 07:36: Until now, the neutron star has hovered above a critical size. 08:05: Now, the event horizon doesn't actually exist as long as the neutron star stays larger than the would be horizon. 08:12: However, if we can increase the mass of the neutron star, the actual star shrinks, and the event horizon expands. 08:22: There's a mass where the radius of the neutron star and the event horizon overlap. 08:32: And the neutron star submerges beneath it. 08:54: When the black hole first forms, the material inside must resemble the stuff of the original neutron star. 03:15: ... the exact way that the matter of a neutron star fills this 6D quantum phase space depends on two important principles of ... 04:09: In the case of a neutron star, position momentum phase space is completely full of neutrons. 08:05: Now, the event horizon doesn't actually exist as long as the neutron star stays larger than the would be horizon. 08:32: And the neutron star submerges beneath it. 07:06: If we can somehow add more matter to a neutron star-- throw another star at it, maybe-- it won't get spatially larger. 07:41: The space time curvature at the neutron star's surface is pretty extreme. 06:40: Very, very large neutron velocities become part of the possibility space. 02:17: ... leftover core, the neutron star, is a very weird beast-- a bowl of neutrons the size of a city, with a mass of at least 1.4 suns and the density of ... 03:45: For example, electrons, protons, and neutrons. 04:09: In the case of a neutron star, position momentum phase space is completely full of neutrons. 06:27: Its constituent neutrons are about as constrained in position as you can get. 06:44: To put it another way, the neutrons are packed so close together in position space that their momentum space becomes gigantic. 09:25: Neutrons are certainly shredded into component quarks and gluons.
	2015-10-22: Have Gravitational Waves Been Discovered?!? 03:16: ... most insane gravitational phenomena in the universe-- neutron stars or black holes in-spiraling just before merger, or gravitational ... 04:34: This has been seen in binary neutron stars. 04:42: ... if we could actually see g-waves, we'd be able to study black holes, neutron stars, even the extremely early universe in ways never before ... 06:51: LIGO really just scratched the minimum sensitivity needed to spot merging neutron stars and black holes in relatively nearby galaxies. 03:16: ... most insane gravitational phenomena in the universe-- neutron stars or black holes in-spiraling just before merger, or gravitational ... 04:34: This has been seen in binary neutron stars. 04:42: ... if we could actually see g-waves, we'd be able to study black holes, neutron stars, even the extremely early universe in ways never before ... 06:51: LIGO really just scratched the minimum sensitivity needed to spot merging neutron stars and black holes in relatively nearby galaxies.
	2015-09-23: Does Dark Matter BREAK Physics? 02:12: If dark matter exists in this model, its mass probably needs to come from protons and neutrons. 02:37: And they're basically crunched down, compact, dead or failed stars, black holes, neutron stars, brown dwarfs, Macaulay Culkin, et cetera. 02:12: If dark matter exists in this model, its mass probably needs to come from protons and neutrons.
	2015-05-20: The Real Meaning of E=mc² 06:12: ... the periodic table weigh less than the combined masses of the protons, neutrons, and electrons that make them ... 06:31: What about protons and neutrons themselves? 06:33: They're made of particles called quarks, whose combine mass is about 2,000 to 3,000 times smaller than a proton's or neutron's mass. 06:12: ... the periodic table weigh less than the combined masses of the protons, neutrons, and electrons that make them ... 06:31: What about protons and neutrons themselves? 06:33: They're made of particles called quarks, whose combine mass is about 2,000 to 3,000 times smaller than a proton's or neutron's mass.
	2015-04-01: Is the Moon in Majora’s Mask a Black Hole? 04:57: The only solid macroscopic objects in nature that are that dense are neutron stars. 05:08: ... if you imagine some esoteric, unnatural way to synthesize a neutron star, theoretical estimates say that you'd still need at least 1/10 of ... 05:23: ... but still millions of times less than what you'd need to make a pure neutron ... 05:32: So if it's not a neutron star, how can Majora's moon be so dense? 05:35: Well, maybe it's neutron star material, but only in the outer layers. 05:39: ... have enough of a gravitational scaffolding, so to speak, to achieve neutron star densities with less mass than would normally be ... 05:50: So to serve as a gravitational seed, we need something incredibly small and incredibly dense, even denser than a neutron star. 05:08: ... if you imagine some esoteric, unnatural way to synthesize a neutron star, theoretical estimates say that you'd still need at least 1/10 of the ... 05:23: ... but still millions of times less than what you'd need to make a pure neutron star. ... 05:32: So if it's not a neutron star, how can Majora's moon be so dense? 05:35: Well, maybe it's neutron star material, but only in the outer layers. 05:39: ... have enough of a gravitational scaffolding, so to speak, to achieve neutron star densities with less mass than would normally be ... 05:50: So to serve as a gravitational seed, we need something incredibly small and incredibly dense, even denser than a neutron star. 05:39: ... have enough of a gravitational scaffolding, so to speak, to achieve neutron star densities with less mass than would normally be ... 05:35: Well, maybe it's neutron star material, but only in the outer layers. 05:08: ... if you imagine some esoteric, unnatural way to synthesize a neutron star, theoretical estimates say that you'd still need at least 1/10 of the sun's mass, ... 04:57: The only solid macroscopic objects in nature that are that dense are neutron stars.

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